The belief that there are unequivocal mandates, known by humans, that must dictate their actions (i.e., I must not lie, for the truth is always best).

Access

Agenda-setting

The conviction that one simply does not know whether God exists or not; it is often accompanied with a further conviction that one need not care whether God exists or not.

The belief that God does not exist. In the last two centuries, some of the most influential atheistic philosophers have been Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Audience

Autonomous moral agent

The ability to freely determine one's own course in life. Etymologically, it goes back to the Greek words for "self" and "law." This term is most strongly associated with Immanuel Kant, for whom it meant the ability to give the moral law to oneself.

Branding

Categorical Imperative

Connote/Connotation

Any position in ethics which claims that the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences.

Construct or Construction

Consumers

An example which claims to undermine or refute the principle or theory against which it is advanced.

Critical

Critical Autonomy

Critical Viewing

An intentional attempt to mislead.

The process by which the audience identifies the elements that make up the construction of meaning within a text.

A deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion follows necessarily from its premises. This contrasts to various kinds of inductive arguments, which offer only a degree of probability to support their conclusion.

Measurable characteristics of media consumers such as age, gender, race, education and income level.

A description of a media text indicating its common sense, obvious meaning.

This term refers to ethical theories (such as Kant's) that stress the importance of the motive of doing one's duty as a determining factor in assessing the moral value of actions. It is the motive for, not the consequences of actions (as in utilitarian systems), that count.

A theory holidng that what makes an action morally right is the fact that God commands or wills it.

When a text is read by the audience in a way that is intended by the creators of the text.

Something that is required of someone. For Kant a perfect duty must be performed whatever the circumstances.

A philosophical theory which holds that moral judgments are simply expressions of positive or negative feelings.

A moral theory that, in its most common version ( universal ethical egoism ) states that each person ought to act in his or her own Self-interest.

The study of morality and moral behavior.

A person's ethnicity refers to that individual's affiliation with a particular cultural tradition that may be national (French) or regional (Sicilian) in character. Ethnicity differs from race in that ethnicity is a sociological concept whereas race is a biological phenomenon.

The is the word that Aristotle uses for "happiness" or "flourishing." It comes from the Greek " eu ," which means "happy" or "well" or "harmonious," and " daimon ," which refers to the individual's spirit.

The First Amendment to the Constitution: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or the press. . . ".

An organized attempt to influence media content, which can take the form of letters, phone calls, petitions, lawsuits and legislation.

The claim that rationality and knowledge rest on a firm foundation of self-evident truths.

The guarantee by the Constitution of unrestricted distribution of information. A freedom-of-the-press absolutist believes in the strictest sense that media should be completely unregulated.

A category of media texts characterized by a particular style, form or content.

The theory that every event has a cause and that this fact is incompatible with the existence of free will. Hence human beings should not be held morally responsible for their actions because it is impossible for them to do other than what they do.

This is a term that utilitarians use to designate a unit of pleasure. Its opposite is a dolor, which is a unit of pain or displeasure. The term "hedon" comes from the Greek word for pleasure.

Of, or pertaining to, pleasure.

When dominant groups persuade subordinate groups that the dominant ideology is in their own best interests. The media's function in this process is to encourage maintenance of the status quo.

For Kant, heteronomy is the opposite of autonomy. Whereas an autonomous person is one whose will is self-determined, a heteronomous person is one whose will is determined by something outside of the person, such as overwhelming emotions. Etymologically, heteronomy goes back to the Greek words for "other" and "law."

A conditional command, such as, "If you want to lose weight, stop eating cookies." Some philosophers have claimed that morality is only a system of hypothetical imperatives, while others—such as Kant—have maintained that morality is a matter of categorical imperatives. Also see categorical imperative.

A metaphysical theory holding only that ideas (minds and mental events) are real, or that they are more real, valuable, and enduring than material things. In an ethical context, "idealistic" is sometimes used to refer to a person who lives by ideals or to a view based on principle.

How we as individuals understand the world in which we live. This understanding involves an interaction between our individual psychologies and the social structures that surround us. Mediating between these are the individual processes of communication as well as the technological processes of the mass media. These ideas are usually related to the distribution of power.

In ethics, an impartial standpoint is one which treats everyone as equal. For many philosophers, impartiality is an essential component of the moral point of view.

A command. Philosophers often distinguish between hypothetical imperatives and categorical imperatives; see the entries under each of these topics.

This is the word that Kant used (actually, he used the German word Neigung ) to refer to our sensuous feelings, emotions, and desires. Kant contrasts inclination with reason. Whereas inclination was seen as physical, causally-determined, and irrational, reason was portrayed as non-physical, free, and obviously rational.

Holds that rights of individuals have primacy over normal needs of community. Necessary for development of moral autonomy.

The agencies and institutions involved with the production of media texts. The term is also used in a more restrictive sense to describe the commercial production of media texts for the purpose of making a profit.

Any position which attempts to reconcile apparently conflicting tendencies or values into a single framework. Integrationist positions are contrasted with separatist positions, which advocate keeping groups (usually defined by race, ethnicity, or gender) separate from one another.

When a media text makes reference to another text that, on the surface, appears to be unique and distinct.

Moments in a media text that are generated by a broad comedy, a violent act, movement within a frame, a loud noise, rapid editing, a profanity or a sexually explicit representation, all of which are calculated to engage an audience's excitement.

The political philosophy that espouses individual choice within a political framework.

The way in which a product or media text is sold to a target audience.

Mass media refers to those media that are designed to be consumed by large audiences through the agencies of technology.

According to Kant, a maxim is the subjective rule that an individual uses in making a decision.

The arithmetical average of items in a group. See also Aristotle, Golden Mean.

Philosophers often contrast means and ends . The ends we seek are the goals we try to achieve, while the means are the actions or things which we use in order to accomplish those ends. A hammer provides the means for pounding a nail in a piece of wood. Some philosophers, most notably Immanuel Kant, have argued that we should never treat human beings merely as means to an end.

Traditionally, it's the process by which one learns the technical production skills associated with creating media texts. More recently, it has also included the intellectual processes of critical consumption or deconstruction of texts.

The process of understanding and using the mass media in an assertive and non-passive way. This includes an informed and critical understanding of the nature of the media, the techniques used by them and the impact of these techniques.

The singular form of media, the term usually describes individual forms such as radio, television, film, etc.

The plural form of medium; the term has come to mean all the industrial forms of mass communication combined.

Any commercial process in which one seller controls prices and supply of a product.

The domain of actions, motives, traits, etc. that are open to moral assessment, that is, can be said to be morally good or morally bad.

The view that we ought not to be morally concerned with, or involved with, people outside of our own immediate group. Moral isolationism is often a consequences of some versions of moral relativism.

The phenomenon that the moral goodness or badness of some of our actions depends simply on chance. For example, the drunk driver may safely reach home without injuring anyone at all, or might accidentally kill several children that run out into the street while the drunken person is driving home. How bad the action of driving while drunk is in that case depends in part on luck.

A sudden increase in public perception of the possible threat to societal values and interests because of exposure to media texts.

The decision-making process associated with decisions of right, wrong, harm, mutual aid, etc.

The position that doubts the existence of moral truth and the possibility of ethical knowledge.

A system of guidance designed to assist in living within a society.

Journalists in the early twentieth century who sought to expose corruption in business, industry, and government.

An excessive preoccupation with oneself. In mythology, Narcissus was a beautiful young man who fell in love with his own image reflected in a pool of water.

How the plot or story is told. In a media text, narrative is the coherent sequencing of events across time and space.

In ethics, believers in natural law hold (a) that there is a natural order to the human world, (b) that this natural order is good, and (c) that people therefore ought not to violate that order.

In ethics, naturalism is the theory that moral values can be derived from facts about the world and human nature. The naturalist holds that "is" can imply "ought."

According to G. E. Moore, any argument which attempts to define the good in any terms whatsoever, including naturalistic terms; for Moore , Good is simple and indefinable. Some philosophers, most notably defenders of naturalism, have argued that Moore and others are wrong and that such arguments are not necessarily fallacious.

The process of give and take by which members of the audience interpret, deconstruct and find meaning within a media text.

The belief that there is no value or truth. Literally, a belief in nothing ( nihil ). Most philosophical discussions of nihilism arise out of a consideration of Fredrich Nietzsche's remarks on nihilism, especially in The Will to Power.

This concept, often contrasted with descriptive, is used to refer to a type of reflection that seeks to discover the way things ought to be.

A Kantian term that refers to the unknowable world as it is in itself. According to Kant, we can only know the world as it appears to us, as a phenomenon. We can never know it as it is in itself, as a noumenon. The adjectival forms of these two words are "phenomenal" and "noumenal," respectively.

A view holidng that there is some permanent framework for determining rationality, knowledge, truth, reality, and moral value. The opposite of relativism.

A critical position that is in opposition to the values and ideology intended by the creators of a media text, usually the dominant reading of a text.

In recent discussions, ethicists have contrasted particularity with universality and impartiality and asked how, if morality is necessarily universal and impartial, it can give adequate recognition to particularity. Particularity refers to specific attachments (friendships, loyalties, etc.) and desires (fundamental projects, personal hopes in life) that are usually seen as morally irrelevant to the rational moral self.

An individual's personal and professional views on daily moral choices.

This word derives from the Greek word for "love of wisdom." It has been defined in a variety of ways, one of which is the notion that philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions.

The theory holding that there are many different realities and that they are not reducible to a single reality or to only two basic realities. Also used in a different context to refer to a society characterized by a variety of cultural groups.

In the original Latin, this phrase means "at first glance." In ethics, it usually occurs in discussions of duties. A prima facie duty is one which appears binding but which may, upon closer inspection, turn out to be overridden by other, stronger duties.

That part of a radio or television schedule expected to attract the largest audience.

The underlying directive to moral decision making that influences action (i.e., Respect for human reasoning powers [principle] may direct the telling of the truth [action}).

Relates to the right to private conduct that is of no concern to the public. Similarly, personal information to which there can be no right of public access.

The industrial process of creating media texts as well as the people who are engaged in this process.

Describes the quality of a media production proportional to the money and technology expended on the text.

The process by which manufacturers or advertisers pay a fee in order for branded products to be prominently displayed in a movie, TV show or other media production.

Any media text whose primary purpose is to openly persuade an audience of the validity of a particular point of view.

The doctrine that all human motivation is ultimately selfish or egoistic.

A philosophy that restricts distribution of information out of consideration for the status quo. Usually requires substantial documentation. Operating principle: If there is doubt, do not publish.

An emerging system of ethics which focuses on the ability to make ethical decisions based on caring and sharing within a network of relationships.

A view that denies the existence of objective, transcultural moral values and/or standards of rationality. The only moral values and standards of rationality that exist are relative to either individuals or societies.

The process by which a constructed media text stands for, symbolizes, describes or represents people, places, events or ideas that are real and have an existence outside the text.

One is allowed to perform an action and nobody should be allowed to prevent that action if it is a "right." Having a right doesn't mean one ought to do it, but that one is allowed to do if desired.

Formal or informal conventions one is required or conditioned to follow.

Information that has yet to be verified fully.

A term utilitarians borrowed from economics to indicate how much utility we should try to create. Whereas maximizing utilitarians claim that we should strive to maximize utility, satisficing utilitarians claim that we need only try to produce enough utility to satisfy everyone. It's analogous to the difference between taking a course with the goal of getting an "A" and taking it pass-fail.

Exaggeration and often adding more and more titillating emphasis to information.

There are two senses of this term. In ancient Greece , the skeptics were inquirers who were dedicated to the investigation of concrete experience and wary of theories that might cloud or confuse that experience. In modern times, skeptics have been wary of the trustworthiness of sense experience. Thus classical skepticism was skeptical primarily about theories, while modern skepticism is skeptical primarily about experience.

The study of government, the state, and issues of social policy.

A theory of political sovereignty claiming that the authority of government derives from a voluntary agreement among all the people of a society to form a political community and to obey the laws laid down by the government they collectively select.

Elements which bring about disturbances within a given society.

A social condition of stability; one in which behavior of members of the order is highly predictable and is likely to contribute to a hospitable, nonthreatening social climate.

A form of media representation by which instantly recognized characteristics are used to label members of social or cultural groups. While often negative, stereotypes can contain an element of truth and are used by the media to establish an instant rapport with the audience.

An extreme version of relativism, which maintains that each person's beliefs are relative to that person alone and cannot be judged from the outside by any other person.

Literally, "above the call of duty." A supererogatory act is one that is morally good and that goes beyond what is required by duty. Some ethical theories, such as certain versions of utilitarianism, that demand that we always do the act that yields the most good have no room for supererogatory acts.

The combination of two separate media texts or products that share similar characteristics so that one helps market the other.

The machinery, tools and materials required to produce a media text. In media literacy terms, technology greatly impacts upon the construction and connotation of a text.

The individual results of media production: a movie, a TV episode, a book, an issue of a magazine or newspaper, an advertisement, an album, etc.

The study of divine reality or God, sometimes divided into natural theology which deals with possible knowledge about God based on the use of reason alone, and revealed theology, which claims knowledge about God based on special revelations.

A type of argument, deriving from Kant, which seeks to establish the necessary conditions of the possibility of something's being the case. For example, we have to believe that we are free when we perform an action; thus belief in freedom is a necessary condition of the possibility of action.

The quality of a media text by which it appears to be natural rather than constructed.

Immanuel Kant used this term when discussing the maxims, or subjective rules, that guide our actions. A maxim is universalizable if it can consistently be willed as a law that everyone ought to obey. The only maxims which are morally good are those which can be universalized. The test of universalizability ensures that everyone has the same moral obligations in morally similar situations.

A moral theory holding that the value of an action resides in its utility or use for the production of pleasure or happiness.

A theory developed by philosopher John Rawls that involves the making of a decision as if one had no knowledge of their place in society.

Something which is a representation rather than the real thing. In advertising, the word "virtually" means "almost."

Notions of moral excellence or uprightness. Ancient Greek philosophers defined virtues as those character traits that they thought made for a good person.

When an employee expresses his or her ethical concerns related to an employer's, or organization's, business practices. The "whistleblower" usually fears blocked promotion, demotion or even firing for expression his or her concerns. Moreover, whistleblowers are usually bound by some form of confidentiality agreement or promise not to make public certain business practices that are otherwise private. The movie, The Insider , depicts whistleblowing in the tobacco industry (based on the real life whistleblower who brought down the tobacco industry) and the consequences, both ethical and legal, associated with the act.

Informal way in which media products become known by audiences.

The World Wide Web is the network of pages of images, texts and sounds on the Internet which can be viewed using browser software.

A movement dating to the late 1800s in which news events were routinely overdramatized. The most notable yellow journalist was William Randolph Hearst.